Exploring the Interplay of Science, Technology, and Capital
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Marx’s Perspective
Karl Marx's seminal work, Das Kapital, was published in 1867, just shy of eight years after Charles Darwin's groundbreaking Origin of Species. Both works significantly reshaped our understanding of societal and scientific relationships. More crucially, they prompted inquiries into the connection between nature and science. While Marx and Darwin shared an interest in the intersection of the social and scientific realms, their analyses diverged in focus. This discussion will center on Marx's insights alongside those of the natural scientists of his era.
The mid-19th century marked a notable distinction between biological and physical sciences. This divergence likely stemmed from physics adopting a more abstract, mathematical approach to studying nature, while biology remained focused on human observation of the natural world, utilizing instruments like microscopes and field glasses. Collaborations between physicists and biologists typically revolved around applying physical models to biological questions rather than the reverse. These mathematical frameworks later became foundational to materialist philosophical discussions surrounding science and technology, enriching the discourse without limiting it to mere models.
Section 1.1: Marx’s Scientific Foundations
Marx sought to ground his work in scientific rigor. He immersed himself in mathematics, economics, and physical sciences to add depth to his analyses. Correspondence between Marx and Friedrich Engels indicates their shared commitment to staying informed about advancements in the natural sciences during the latter half of the 19th century. They aimed to understand how 'scientific' progress intertwined with the prevalent idealist philosophy of nature. Their inquiries spanned the physical forces of nature and the quantification of phenomena like heat, electricity, and magnetism.
In a speech delivered in 1856 at the anniversary celebration of the People's Paper, Marx metaphorically likened social revolutions to geological formations, asserting that societal change was ephemeral compared to technological advancements. He warned that neglecting the links between scientific discovery and societal implications could result in humanity's subjugation to capital interests.
"That social revolution, it is true, was no novelty invented in 1848. Steam, electricity, and the self-acting mule were revolutionists of a rather more dangerous character than even citizens Barbés, Raspail and Blanqui… On the one hand, there have started into life industrial and scientific forces, which no epoch of the former human history had ever suspected. On the other hand, there exist symptoms of decay, far surpassing the horrors recorded of the latter times of the Roman Empire."
Section 1.2: The Rise of Logical Positivism
The critique of physics and metaphysics that Marx and Engels engaged in was increasingly validated with the advent of logical positivism from the late 19th century into the first half of the 20th century, particularly in Vienna, Cambridge, and later North America. Ironically, some key figures in the philosophy of science during this period focused on distinguishing metaphysical influences from the natural sciences, while pioneering physicists, especially in quantum physics, were more inclined to integrate their ideological beliefs with their scientific endeavors. Many pioneers of quantum mechanics were unafraid to explore the philosophical and political implications of their discoveries.
While Marx and his contemporaries were elevating awareness about capitalism's superstructures, modern science's pioneers were reconciling atomic theories with the perplexities of thermodynamics. Lord Kelvin, for instance, speculated that atomic spectra could enhance time measurement precision, acknowledging time as a commodity increasingly vital for financial markets.
Chapter 2: The Commodification of Science
Through the lens of philosophy, Antonio Negri's analysis of productivity and circulation under capitalism highlights the significance of time. The transition from Galilean to Newtonian physics necessitated revising the rigid concept of time, leading to its reinterpretation in the context of relativity theory. The emergence of quantum time, informed by atomic wave properties, allows for a nuanced understanding of time's operation across various scales of visibility.
The first video, Naomi Oreskes: "Merchants of Doubt" (Part 1 of 6), explores how misinformation influences public understanding of science.
The second video, Merchants of Doubt Official Trailer 1 (2014), presents a documentary that addresses the manipulation of scientific evidence in public discourse.
Section 2.1: Science as a Commodity
The evolution of scientific knowledge coincided with the rise of the industrial revolution in Europe and North America, signaling the formalization of techno-scientific labor transitioning from artisanal craftsmanship to mechanized productivity. As engineering and applied sciences advanced, practitioners—often self-taught or affiliated with scientific academies—began codifying principles based on their observations.
In the 19th century, amateur scientists could contribute to scientific discourse without formal credentials, provided they possessed the intellectual capital necessary for their work to gain recognition. Despite the existing power imbalances, knowledge dissemination extended beyond elite circles, reaching a broader audience.
Section 2.2: The Impact of Colonialism on Scientific Knowledge
Nevertheless, the intertwining of science with imperialism raises questions about the underlying attitudes of colonial scientists towards indigenous knowledge systems. While colonial powers often dismissed local wisdom as inferior, colonized populations utilized access to scientific knowledge as a means of asserting autonomy and pursuing nation-building efforts.
For instance, India's rich intellectual legacy in mathematics and physical sciences, despite its divergence from modern scientific frameworks, exemplifies resistance against colonial condescension. Marxism played a pivotal role in shaping India's independence movement and contributed significantly to postcolonial scholarship, prompting critical reflections on scientific imperialism and commodification.
Chapter 3: The Massification of Science
The revolution in publishing democratized knowledge, enabling wider access to scientific literature. The emergence of mass publication initiatives, such as penny presses, aimed to make scientific treatises accessible to the literate populace. Women played a crucial role in popularizing science, reaching diverse audiences through their writings.
Despite their contributions, women involved in science communication were often from privileged backgrounds, highlighting the disparities in intellectual mobility. The democratization of knowledge did not equally benefit all women, particularly in times of war when labor shortages prompted increased opportunities.
Section 3.1: The Politics of Science
Values inherent to science and the surrounding social context have always been interconnected. Historical scientists often justified their theories through political lenses. Since Marx's time, the critical appraisal of science has evolved, witnessing the emergence of social constructivism and relativism, which assert that scientific knowledge is influenced by cultural norms and community standards.
As we reflect on the interplay of politics and science, it becomes essential to explore how various political ideologies negotiate ethical considerations in scientific research. The work of figures like Karen Barad exemplifies the potential for integrating leftist politics with theoretical physics, although such endeavors can provoke mixed reactions within academic circles.
In conclusion, it is imperative for those advocating for progressive change in science to leverage historical insights while navigating the complexities of its legacy. The potential for Marxist materialist politics to inform contemporary scientific discussions amidst ongoing techno-economic transformations remains a vital area for exploration.