Anti-Personnel Mines: The Lingering Danger Beneath Our Feet
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As many as 75% of those harmed by landmines are non-combatants. Despite the cessation of hostilities in numerous regions, the hazardous remnants of past conflicts remain.
The M1 Assault Breacher Vehicle (ABV), an American sapper tank, is approaching a decade of service in the U.S. Army next year. Its imposing presence commands respect, weighing in at 72 tons and measuring 12 meters in length, powered by a 1500 hp engine. Constructed on the M1 Abrams chassis, the ABV replaces the typical turret with a specially designed shield that incorporates a steel framework and reactive armor. However, its true significance lies not in its formidable appearance, but in its capabilities to neutralize mines, roadside explosives, and improvised detonations.
The ABV excels in various scenarios. Utilizing minesweepers and plows, it clears the path ahead, detonating any mines in its way. Its robust design makes it impervious to explosions, even allowing it to traverse minefields at speed. In pyrotechnic demining operations, it can launch an extended charge from a distance of 140 meters—this belt contains 770 kg of explosives capable of triggering all nearby mines. Additionally, the vehicle can detonate mines using electromagnetic waves.
Sapper tanks were first deployed in Afghanistan in 2010, quickly garnering admiration. Since then, they have accompanied U.S. troops on all missions. Sadly, while American soldiers benefit from this protection, millions of civilians globally are not as fortunate. The UN reports that 1,500 individuals lose their lives or sustain serious injuries from landmines every year. Experts caution that countless mines and unexploded ordnance remain buried in the earth, and while exact figures are elusive, the toll on human lives is tragically clear.
The core issue with landmines is their greatest impact occurs not during active conflicts, but for years afterward. Most victims are civilians who inhabit areas once ravaged by war, often including children drawn by curiosity. It is easy to attribute these incidents to negligence, yet buried mines are typically invisible, sometimes expertly camouflaged by military personnel. A common improvised mine consists of a tin can filled with stones and a 200-gram TNT charge activated by a tension fuse. While not lethal, it can cause severe injuries. The PFM-1 mine, designed to resemble common objects, poses additional risks, especially to children.
These explosive traps lie hidden in over 80 nations—wherever significant armed conflicts erupted during the 20th century. The situation in the Balkans is particularly dire. Despite nearly a quarter-century since the region’s violent wars, buried dangers still linger.
Authorities in Bosnia estimate that 8.2% of the country remains mined from the conflict. Although some progress has been made, the pace is slower than anticipated. The Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Centre (BHMAC) reported in 2018 that 2.1% of the territory was still off-limits, with around 900,000 Bosnians residing in mined areas. The threat impacts farmers, schoolchildren, and other innocents. Croatia faces a similar fate, with the Croatian Mine Action Center (CROMAC) noting that 31,000 mines remain undetonated—this figure only accounts for documented military records, leaving many unreported "wild" minefields.
Countries like Nepal, Congo, Angola, Rwanda, Libya, and various West African nations grapple with similar landmine issues. The extent of mines in Iraq, Kurdistan, Thailand, and Vietnam is difficult to quantify, with anti-personnel mines utilized during conflicts in Burma and Syria, and now employed by armed groups in Colombia, Pakistan, Tunisia, Yemen, and Ukraine. Booby-trapped mines are also present in the Caucasus and Cyprus, which has been divided for over four decades. The remnants of the Soviet-Afghan War (1979–1989) have left Afghanistan littered with explosive devices. The Russians indiscriminately dropped mines from helicopters, rendering vast areas unusable, with little record-keeping. More recent conflicts, such as those involving ISIS in Iraq, have left behind a perilous legacy, with daily incidents of explosions reported.
Success in mine warfare hinges on both speed and efficiency.
Sapper Bees
Numerous patents exist for mine neutralization techniques. The British firm Disarmco has created a system named Dragon, featuring a burning sail set up near a mine. This sail produces a flame of 2000°C that melts the mine's exterior, followed by a pyrotechnic material that incinerates the TNT inside. The entire procedure is safe, as the mine is rendered inert before detonation. This method can neutralize various types of mines, from anti-personnel to large naval explosives. The Albanian government has successfully employed this technology in collaboration with the United States to eliminate their ammunition stockpiles.
Prof. Adam Januszka's team at the Military Institute of Engineering Technology in Wroc?aw has developed equipment for the rapid and safe deactivation of mines without triggering them.
> “The concept relies on two types of neutralizers: explosive and thermal. The first employs a 75g TNT charge aimed at the mine to destroy its fuse, while the second involves an incendiary grenade that burns through the mine’s fuse and body at over 2500°C, leaving only the harmless shell,” explains Prof. Januszka.
This innovative approach has garnered multiple awards, including recognition at international invention exhibitions, and is set to be utilized in UN humanitarian missions.
Identifying hidden mines presents its own challenges. Civilian machines that dig through soil to unearth explosives are available, but they are expensive. In Cambodia, where a major mine clearance initiative is underway, only three such machines are operational due to budget constraints. Typically, trained sappers, aided by tracking dogs, conduct mine clearance. They follow a meticulous procedure: wearing protective gear, they line up along the minefield's edge and methodically search the area with metal detectors and gardening tools. First, they clear the vegetation, then scan for the telltale beeping of a detector. Upon locating a mine or unexploded ordnance, they must choose between defusing it on-site or detonating it in a safe environment. Dogs often assist by pinpointing the location of buried dangers.
Mine disarmament procedures vary by country. In many European nations, for instance, explosives are transported to designated sites for safe detonation rather than being neutralized on-site. The scale of this issue is staggering; in 2017 alone, the Polish Armed Forces received over 7,000 reports concerning unexploded ordnance, resulting in the discovery and elimination of 1,800 aerial bombs, 4,700 mortar grenades, nearly 1,500 hand grenades, and over 16,000 artillery shells. Countless more explosives remain hidden in Polish landscapes, remnants from World War II.
Israeli researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, led by Professor Shimson Belkin, are exploring innovative methods for detecting mines. They propose using specially modified bacteria that react to chemicals released from explosives. Initial tests have shown promise, and this method could revolutionize mine detection. Bacteria encapsulated in soluble capsules can indicate the presence of explosives through fluorescence, detectable from a safe distance using laser scanning technology. Prof. Belkin emphasizes the importance of enhancing the stability and sensitivity of the bacteria, along with developing faster scanning devices.
Nature has also proven valuable in mine detection. Bees have shown remarkable efficacy, with research initiated by the U.S. Department of Defense back in 1998.
> “Bees possess an extraordinary sense of smell, surpassing that of dogs. They can detect minute traces of explosives,” asserts Dr. Alan S. Rudolph, who oversaw the research. Tests confirmed that bees can identify 99% of buried explosives.
By feeding bees TNT-laced food, they quickly learn to associate the explosive with nourishment, prompting them to search for it as they would for flowers. Studies revealed that bees congregate in areas with hidden explosives.
> “During trials at the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio, only two or three bees passed over a control site with no explosives each hour, while approximately 1,200 bees hovered over areas where TNT was buried,” explains Phillip J. Rodacy from Sandia National Laboratories.
To monitor bee movements across large areas, scientists have fitted them with tiny transmitters weighing less than 12 nanograms.
Croatian zoologist Prof. Nikola Kozic is currently applying American research methods to study the collective behavior of bee swarms. With EU funding secured for fieldwork, breakthrough discoveries may be on the horizon.
In the Name of the Law
Nonetheless, even the most advanced technical solutions will be futile without the backing of appropriate legal frameworks.
> “While progress is being made, mines continue to pose a serious risk to civilian safety. We cannot eradicate them without the international community enforcing adherence to the law,” states Paul Heslop, director of the UN Mine Action Service (UNMAS).
His organization oversees the efforts of 15,000 personnel across various nations, working to clear hazardous areas with annual funding of $250–300 million. The most notable achievement in this realm was the signing of the Ottawa Treaty, effective March 1, 1999, which mandates signatory nations to eliminate their stockpiles of anti-personnel mines and refrain from their use, production, and sale. The treaty's impact is evident, with annual casualties declining from nearly 12,000 in 2002 to approximately 4,200 in subsequent years, stabilizing at around 1,500 currently.
The challenge remains that not all nations have ratified the treaty; as of May 2019, 164 countries had signed. Key global players such as the United States, China, Russia, and India are not among them. Although the U.S. ceased using anti-personnel mines in 1991 and halted production in 1997, it has not signed the treaty, citing concerns that doing so could undermine U.S. defense commitments. Finnish Defense Minister Jussi Niinistö labeled joining the agreement as irresponsible, even while Finland tests new remotely triggered mines that circumvent the treaty's regulations. Such developments raise alarms, as we are still grappling with the legacy of past conflicts while new mine technologies are being proposed. The UN's 2019–2023 strategy aims to combat such attitudes and maintain civilian safety, focusing on educational initiatives for children and uniformed services to effectively address these threats.
Many explosive devices buried in the ground will remain operational for decades, posing risks to future generations. It is imperative that politicians remain mindful of this ongoing danger.